Civil Wrongs Study Guide

Tort Law and Consumer Rights

Learn how civil liability protects safety, liberty, property and reputation. Each guide moves from a clear rule to practical facts, landmark cases and a compact exam answer.

Core modules
4
Topics mapped
20
Detailed guides
20
Landmark cases
48

Start with the legal right

Duty, breach and injury build every tort answer

DutyBreachInjury
Begin the guide

Core module

Foundations and General Principles

  1. 01Meaning, Nature and Essentials of TortCivil wrong, legal duty, legal injury, remedies and the distinctive character of tort liability.Read guide
  2. 02Development of Tort LawCommon-law origins, growth through precedent, Indian adaptation and constitutional torts.Read guide
  3. 03Tort, Contract, Quasi-Contract and CrimeSource of duty, parties, purpose, fault, remedies and areas of overlap.Read guide
  4. 04Injuria Sine Damno and Damnum Sine InjuriaViolation of legal right without loss and actual loss without violation of a legal right.Read guide
  5. 05General Defences in TortConsent, necessity, claimant fault, act of God, inevitable accident and private defence.Read guide

Core module

Specific Torts: Personal and Property Interests

  1. 01NegligenceDuty of care, breach, causation, remoteness, damage and the reasonable-person standard.Read guide
  2. 02Nervous Shock and Psychiatric HarmRecognised psychiatric injury, primary and secondary victims, foreseeability and proximity controls.Read guide
  3. 03NuisancePrivate and public nuisance, unreasonable interference, substantial harm, defences and remedies.Read guide
  4. 04False Imprisonment and Malicious ProsecutionUnlawful total restraint, misuse of legal process, absence of reasonable cause, malice and damage.Read guide
  5. 05Judicial and Quasi-Judicial ActsFunctional immunity, jurisdiction, good faith, statutory protection and limits of the defence.Read guide
  6. 06Parental and Quasi-Parental AuthorityCare and discipline, historical common-law authority, child dignity and modern statutory limits.Read guide

Core module

Liability, State Action and Reputation

  1. 01Vicarious LiabilityEmployment relationships, course of employment, close connection, prohibited acts and independent contractors.Read guide
  2. 02Sovereign Immunity and State LiabilityArticle 300, sovereign functions, State vicarious liability and constitutional compensation.Read guide
  3. 03Strict and Absolute LiabilityRylands v. Fletcher, escape, defences, hazardous enterprises, absolute liability and statutory relief.Read guide
  4. 04Defamation in Tort LawDefamatory meaning, reference, publication, online speech, defences, remedies and Section 356 BNS.Read guide

Core module

Consumer Protection

  1. 01Consumer, E-Consumer, Goods and ServicesConsumer status, consideration, goods, services, commercial purpose, self-employment and online transactions.Read guide
  2. 02Rights and Duties of ConsumersSix statutory consumer rights, practical responsibilities, informed choice, evidence and dark patterns.Read guide
  3. 03Consumer Protection AuthoritiesConsumer Councils, CCPA, Consumer Commissions, current pecuniary jurisdiction, mediation and e-Jagriti.Read guide
  4. 04Limitation in Consumer DisputesTwo-year limitation, accrual of cause of action, continuing wrong, condonation and appeal periods.Read guide
  5. 05Consumer RemediesRepair, replacement, refund, compensation, corrective orders, product liability and enforcement routes.Read guide

Case law index

Foundational cases in this guide

Every authority is connected to the rule it proves and its proper exam use.

  1. Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562
  2. Ashby v. White (1703) 2 Ld Raym 938
  3. Gloucester Grammar School Case (1410) YB 11 Hen IV
  4. Bhim Singh v. State of Jammu and Kashmir AIR 1986 SC 494
  5. Nilabati Behera v. State of Orissa (1993) 2 SCC 746
  6. Chairman, Railway Board v. Chandrima Das (2000) 2 SCC 465
  7. Hall v. Brooklands Auto-Racing Club [1933] 1 KB 205
  8. Haynes v. Harwood [1935] 1 KB 146
  9. Nichols v. Marsland (1876) 2 Ex D 1
  10. Jacob Mathew v. State of Punjab (2005) 6 SCC 1
  11. PGIMER v. Jaspal Singh (2009) 7 SCC 330
  12. McLoughlin v. O'Brian [1983] 1 AC 410
  13. Alcock v. Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police [1992] 1 AC 310
  14. Paul v. Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust [2024] UKSC 1
  15. Sturges v. Bridgman (1879) 11 Ch D 852
  16. Rafat Ali v. Sugni Bai (1999) 1 SCC 133
  17. Municipal Council, Ratlam v. Vardhichand (1980) 4 SCC 162
  18. Bird v. Jones (1845) 7 QB 742
  19. West Bengal State Electricity Board v. Dilip Kumar Ray (2007) 14 SCC 568
  20. Anowar Hussain v. Ajoy Kumar Mukherjee AIR 1965 SC 1651
  21. S.P. Goel v. Collector of Stamps, Delhi (1996) 1 SCC 573
  22. Fitzgerald v. Northcote (1865) 4 F & F 656
  23. Parents Forum for Meaningful Education v. Union of India AIR 2001 Del 212
  24. State Bank of India v. Shyama Devi (1978) 3 SCC 399
  25. Mohamud v. WM Morrison Supermarkets plc [2016] UKSC 11
  26. Barclays Bank plc v. Various Claimants [2020] UKSC 13
  27. State of Rajasthan v. Vidhyawati AIR 1962 SC 933
  28. Kasturi Lal Ralia Ram Jain v. State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1965 SC 1039
  29. N. Nagendra Rao & Co. v. State of Andhra Pradesh (1994) 6 SCC 205
  30. Rylands v. Fletcher (1868) LR 3 HL 330
  31. M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987) 1 SCC 395
  32. Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996) 3 SCC 212
  33. R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (1994) 6 SCC 632
  34. Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016) 7 SCC 221
  35. D.P. Choudhary v. Manjulata AIR 1997 Raj 170
  36. Laxmi Engineering Works v. P.S.G. Industrial Institute (1995) 3 SCC 583
  37. Indian Medical Association v. V.P. Shantha (1995) 6 SCC 651
  38. Spring Meadows Hospital v. Harjol Ahluwalia (1998) 4 SCC 39
  39. Lucknow Development Authority v. M.K. Gupta (1994) 1 SCC 243
  40. Pioneer Urban Land and Infrastructure Ltd. v. Govindan Raghavan (2019) 5 SCC 725
  41. National Seeds Corporation Ltd. v. M. Madhusudhan Reddy (2012) 2 SCC 506
  42. Secretary, Thirumurugan Cooperative Agricultural Credit Society v. M. Lalitha (2004) 1 SCC 305
  43. Emaar MGF Land Ltd. v. Aftab Singh (2019) 12 SCC 751
  44. Ireo Grace Realtech Pvt. Ltd. v. Abhishek Khanna (2021) 3 SCC 241
  45. Kandimalla Raghavaiah & Co. v. National Insurance Co. Ltd. (2009) 7 SCC 768
  46. State Bank of India v. B.S. Agricultural Industries (2009) 5 SCC 121
  47. National Insurance Co. Ltd. v. Hindustan Safety Glass Works Ltd. (2017) 5 SCC 776
  48. Ghaziabad Development Authority v. Balbir Singh (2004) 5 SCC 65
Coverage

The sequence moves from the basic idea of a civil wrong to specific torts, complex liability rules and modern consumer remedies.